Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
About the Authors
Contents
Foreword
Preface to the Fourth Edition
Preface to the Third Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Introduction
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Process Equipment Fundamentals
1.1. Frictional Losses
1.2. Density Difference Induces Flow
1.3. Natural Thermosyphon Circulation
1.4. Reducing Hydrocarbon Partial Pressure
1.5. Corrosion at Home
1.6. What I Know
1.6.1. Toilet Training
1.7. Distillation: The First Application
1.7.1. Two-Stage Distillation Column
1.7.2. The Loop Seal
1.7.3. Size of the Big Can
1.7.4. Jet Flood
1.8. Origin of Reflux
1.9. Glossary
Chapter 2: Basic Terms and Conditions
Chapter 3: How Trays Work: Flooding
History of Distillation
3.1. Tray Types
3.2. Tray Efficiency
3.3. Downcomer Backup
3.4. Downcomer Clearance
3.4.1. Height of Liquid on Tray Deck
3.5. Vapor-Flow Pressure Drop
3.5.1. Total Height of Liquid in the Downcomer
3.6. Jet Flood
3.7. Incipient Flood
3.7.1. A Fundamental Concept
3.7.2. Bypassing Steam Trap Stops Flooding
3.8. Tower Pressure Drop and Flooding
3.8.1. Carbon Steel Trays
3.9. Optimizing Feed Tray Location
3.10. Catacarb CO2 Absorber Flooding
Chapter 4: How Trays Work: Dumping: Weeping through Tray Decks
4.1. Tray Pressure Drop
4.1.1. Total Tray ∆P
4.1.2. Dry-Tray Pressure Drop
4.1.3. Hydraulic Tray Pressure Drop
4.1.4. Calculated Total Tray Pressure Drop
4.2. Other Causes of Tray Inefficiency
4.2.1. Out-of-Level Trays
4.2.2. Loss of Downcomer Seal
4.2.3. Flooding at Reduced Vapor Rates
4.3. Bubble-Cap Trays
4.3.1. Distillation Tower Turndown
4.4. New High Capacity Trays
4.5. Calculating Tray Efficiency
Chapter 5: Notes on Tray Design Details
5.1. Process Design Equipment Details
5.1.1. Tray Deck Design
5.1.2. Weir Design
5.1.3. Tray Ring Area
5.1.4. Increasing Tower Bubble Area to Reduce Jet Flood
5.1.5. Changing to Thicker Trays
5.1.6. Tray Spacing
5.1.7. Downcomers
5.1.8. Downcomer Width
5.1.9. Foaming Services
5.1.10. Rounded Downcomer Outlets
5.1.11. Setting the Downcomer Clearance
5.1.12. Inlet Weirs
5.1.13. Seal Pan
5.1.14. Downcomer Bracing Brackets
5.1.15. Selection of Tray Caps
5.1.16. Materials of Construction
5.1.17. Tray Mechanical Details
Chapter 6: Why Control Tower Pressure: Options for Optimizing Tower Operating Pressure
6.1. Selecting an Optimum Tower Pressure
6.2. Raising the Tower Pressure Target
6.3. Lowering the Tower Pressure
6.3.1. Relative Volatility
6.3.2. Incipient Flood Point
6.4. The Phase Rule in Distillation
Chapter 7: What Drives Distillation Towers: Reboiler Function
7.1. The Reboiler
7.2. Heat-Balance Calculations
7.2.1. Effect of Feed Preheat
7.2.2. Optimizing Feed Preheater Duty
7.2.3. Multicomponent Systems
7.2.4. Conversion of Sensible Heat to Latent Heat
7.2.5. Reduced Molecular Weight
7.2.6. Internal Reflux Evaporation
7.2.7. Overview
Chapter 8: How Reboilers Work: Thermosyphon, Gravity Feed, and Forced
8.1. Thermosyphon Reboilers
8.1.1. Once-Through Thermosyphon Reboilers
8.1.2. Circulating Thermosyphon Reboilers
8.1.3. Circulating Versus Once-Through Thermosyphon Reboilers
8.1.4. The Super-Fractionation Stage
8.1.5. Excessive Thermosyphon Circulation
8.2. Forced-Circulation Reboilers
8.3. Kettle Reboilers
8.4. Don’t Forget Fouling
8.5. Vapor Binding in Steam Reboilers
Chapter 9: Inspecting Tower Internals
9.1. Tray Deck Levelness
9.2. Loss of Downcomer Seal Due to Leaks
9.3. Effect of Missing Caps
9.4. Repairing Loose Tray Panels
9.5. Improper Downcomer Clearance
9.6. Inlet Weirs
9.7. Seal Pans
9.8. Drain Holes
9.9. Vortex Breakers
9.10. Chimney Tray Leakage
9.11. Shear Clips
9.12. Bubble-Cap Trays
9.13. Final Inspection
9.13.1. Tower Internal Manways
9.14. Conclusion
9.14.1. Tower Checklist Items
Reference
Chapter 10: How Instruments Work: Levels, Pressures, Flows, and Temperatures
10.1. Level
10.1.1. Level Indication
10.1.2. Level Discrepancies
10.1.3. Effects of Temperature on Level
10.1.4. Plugged Taps
10.1.5. High Liquid Level
10.2. Foam Affects Levels
10.2.1. Split Liquid Levels
10.2.2. Radiation Level Detection
10.2.3. Lost Radiation Source
10.3. Pressure
10.3.1. Pressure Indicators
10.3.2. Pressure Transducers
10.3.3. Pressure-Point Location
10.4. Flow
10.4.1. Flow Indication
10.4.2. Checking Flows in the Field
10.4.3. Other Flow-Measuring Methods
10.4.4. Glycol-Filled Instrument Lines
10.4.5. Zeroing Out a Flowmeter
10.5. Temperature
10.5.1. Temperature Indication
10.5.2. Short Thermowells
10.5.3. Safety Note
10.5.4. Ram’s-Horn Level Indication
Reference
Chapter 11: Packed Towers: Better Than Trays?: Packed-Bed Vapor and Liquid Distribution
11.1. How Packed Towers Work
11.1.1. Liquid Distribution
11.1.2. Vapor Distribution
11.2. Maintaining Functional and Structural Efficiency in Packed Towers
11.2.1. Pressure Drop
11.2.2. Flooding in Packed Towers
11.2.3. Packing Holddowns
11.2.4. Crushed Packing
11.3. Advantages of Packing vs. Trays
Reference
Chapter 12: Steam and Condensate Systems: Water Hammer and Condensate Backup Steam-Side Reboiler Control
12.1. Steam Reboilers
12.2. Condensing Heat-Transfer Rates
12.2.1. Blown Condensate Seal
12.2.2. Condensate Backup
12.3. Maintaining System Efficiency
12.3.1. Steam Flow Control
12.3.2. Condensate Control
12.4. Carbonic Acid Corrosion
12.4.1. Channel Head Leaks
12.5. Condensate Collection Systems
12.5.1. Water Hammer
12.5.2. Condensate Backup in Reboilers
12.5.3. Contaminated Condensate Reuse
12.6. Deaerators
12.6.1. Deaerator Flooding
12.7. Surface Condensers
12.7.1. Steam Turbine Surface Condensers
Chapter 13: Vapor Lock and Exchanger Flooding in Steam Systems
13.1. Function of the Steam Trap
13.2. Non-condensable Venting
13.3. Corrosive Steam
13.4. Condensate Drum
13.5. Condensate Drainage and Vapor Lock
13.5.1. Effect of Vapor Lock
13.5.2. Design Options to Mitigate Vapor Lock
13.6. Elevated Condensate Collection Drum
13.7. Conclusion
Chapter 14: Bubble Point and Dew Point: Equilibrium Concepts in Vapor-Liquid Mixtures
14.1. Bubble Point
14.1.1. Using the Bubble-Point Equation
14.1.2. Adjusting Temperature to Meet a Product Specification
14.2. Dew Point
14.2.1. Dew-Point Calculations
14.2.2. Using the Dew-Point Equation
14.2.3. Revised Product Specification
Reference
Chapter 15: Steam Strippers: Source of Latent Heat of Vaporization
15.1. Heat of Evaporation
15.1.1. Example Calculations
15.1.2. Measuring Evaporation in the Field
15.2. Stripper Efficiency
15.2.1. Vapor Distribution in Steam Strippers
15.2.2. Steam Stripping Water
15.2.3. Temperature Distribution in Water Strippers
15.2.4. Reboiled Water Strippers
15.2.5. Stripping Aromatics from Wastewater
15.2.6. Side-Stream Stripper Hydraulics
15.2.7. Liquid-Line ∆P
References
Chapter 16: Draw-Off Nozzle Hydraulics: Nozzle Cavitation Due to Lack of Hydrostatic Head
16.1. Nozzle Exit Loss
16.1.1. Converting ∆H to Pressure Drop
16.2. Critical Flow
16.3. Maintaining Nozzle Efficiency
16.3.1. Nozzle Limitations
16.3.2. Effect of Bubble-Point Liquid
16.3.3. Cavitation
16.3.4. External Restrictions
16.3.5. Increasing Flow from a Draw-Off Sump
16.4. Overcoming Nozzle Exit Loss Limits
16.4.1. The Rule of Errors
16.4.2. Nozzle Exit Loss Calculation
16.4.3. Pressure Recovery in Nozzles
Reference
Chapter 17: Pumparounds and Tower Heat Flows: Closing the Tower Enthalpy Balance
17.1. The Pumparound
17.1.1. Pumparound Heat Removal
17.1.2. Purpose of a Pumparound
17.1.3. Do Pumparounds Fractionate?
17.2. Vapor Flow
17.2.1. How Top Reflux Affects Vapor Flow
17.2.2. Reflux Effect on Vapor Molecular Weight
17.2.3. Reflux Effect on Vapor Volume
17.3. Fractionation
17.3.1. Improving Fractionation
17.3.2. Flooding the Fractionation Trays
Chapter 18: Condensers and Tower Pressure Control: Hot-Vapor Bypass: Flooded Condenser Control
18.1. Subcooling, Vapor Binding, and Condensation
18.1.1. Subcooling
18.1.2. Air Lock
18.1.3. Condensation and Condenser Design
18.2. Pressure Control
18.2.1. Tower Pressure Control
18.2.2. Hot-Vapor Bypass
18.2.3. Flooded Condenser Pressure Control
18.2.4. Partial Condensation
18.2.5. Slug Flow in Risers
Chapter 19: Air Coolers: Fin-Fan Coolers
19.1. Fin Fouling
19.2. Fan Discharge Pressure
19.3. Effect of Reduced Air Flow
19.4. Adjustments and Corrections to Improve Cooling
19.4.1. Adjusting Fan Speed
19.4.2. Use of Water Sprays on Air Coolers
19.4.3. Air Cooler Fan Alignment
19.5. Designing for Efficiency
19.5.1. Tube-Side Construction
19.5.2. Parallel Air Coolers
19.5.3. Air-Cooled Condensers
Chapter 20: Thermodynamics: How It Applies to Process Equipment
20.1. Why Is Thermodynamics Important to the Plant Operator?
20.2. The Source of Steam Velocity
20.2.1. How to Convert Heat into Motion
20.2.2. Isoentropic Expansion
20.3. Converting Latent Heat to Velocity
20.4. Effect of Wet Steam
20.4.1. Momentum in Steam Turbines
20.5. Steam Ejector Temperature Profile
20.6. Roto-Flow Turbo Expander
20.7. The Meaning of Entropy
Chapter 21: Deaerators and Steam Systems: Generating Steam in Boilers and BFW Preparation
21.1. Boiler Feedwater
21.1.1. Sources of Boiler Feedwater
21.1.2. Deaerators
21.2. Boilers
21.2.1. Superheaters and Economizers
21.2.2. Waste-Heat Boilers
21.2.3. Identifying Waste-Heat Boiler Tube Leaks
21.3. Convective Section Waste-Heat Steam Generation
References
Chapter 22: Steam Generation
22.1. Boiler Blowdown Rate
22.2. Types of Steam-Generating Equipment
22.2.1. Controlling Steam Drum Levels
22.2.2. Superheating Steam
22.3. Boiler Feed Water Preparation
22.3.1. Condensate Polishing
22.3.2. Coordinated Phosphate-pH Boiler Water Treatment
22.3.3. Demineralization of BFW
22.4. Effect of Air Preheat on Boiler Capacity
22.4.1. Adjusting Excess O2
22.5. Deaerator Operation
22.6. Boiler Feedwater Preheat
22.7. Boiler Thermal Efficiency
22.8. Sloped Demister
References
Chapter 23: Vacuum Systems: Steam Jet Ejectors
23.1. Theory of Operation
23.2. Converging and Diverging Compression
23.2.1. Converging Compression—Sonic Boost
23.2.2. Diverging Compression—Velocity Boost
23.3. Calculations, Performance Curves, and Other Measurements in Jet Systems
23.3.1. Vacuum Measurement
23.3.2. Compression Ratio
23.3.3. Jet Discharge Pressure
23.3.4. Multistage Jet Systems
23.3.5. Jet Performance Curves
23.3.6. Measuring Deep Vacuums
23.3.7. Jet Malfunctions
23.3.8. Loss of Sonic Boost
23.3.9. Restoring Critical Flow
23.3.10. Calculating Sonic Velocity
23.3.11. Effect of Gas Rate
23.3.12. Reducing Primary-Jet Discharge Pressure
23.3.13. Condensate Backup
23.3.14. Jet Freeze-Up
23.3.15. Wet Steam
23.3.16. Don’t Know Why, But It Happens
23.4. Optimum Vacuum Tower-Top Temperature
23.5. Measurement of a Deep Vacuum without Mercury
23.5.1. Troubleshooting Vacuum Systems
Reference
Chapter 24: Steam Turbines: Use of Horsepower Valves and Correct Speed Control
24.1. Principle of Operation and Calculations
24.1.1. A Simple Steam Turbine
24.1.2. Calculating Work Available from Motive Steam
24.1.3. Exhaust Steam Conditions
24.1.4. Horsepower Valves
24.1.5. Speed Valves
24.2. Selecting Optimum Turbine Speed
24.2.1. An Old, But Better, Idea
24.2.2. Steam Rack
24.2.3. Condensing Turbines
Chapter 25: Surface Condensers: The Condensing Steam Turbine
25.1. The Second Law of Thermodynamics
25.1.1. The Surface Condenser
25.1.2. Using the Second Law of Thermodynamics
25.2. Surface Condenser Problems
25.2.1. Non-condensable Load
25.2.2. Function of the Final Condenser
25.2.3. Leaking Ejector Condenser Partition Plate
25.3. Surface Condenser Heat-Transfer Coefficients
25.3.1. Effect of Air on Condensate Film Heat Transfer
References
Chapter 26: Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers: Heat-Transfer Fouling Resistance
26.1. Allowing for Thermal Expansion
26.1.1. Designing to Allow for Thermal Expansion
26.1.2. Differential Rates of Thermal Expansion
26.2. Heat-Transfer Efficiency
26.2.1. “No Fooling—No Fouling”
26.2.2. Multipass Exchangers
26.2.3. Shell Side vs. Tube Side
26.3. Exchanger Cleaning
26.3.1. U-Tube Bundles
26.4. Mechanical Design for Good Heat Transfer
26.4.1. Selecting Proper Tube Pitch
26.4.2. Two-Pass Shell
26.4.3. Double-Pipe Exchangers
26.4.4. Fin Tubes
26.4.5. Heat-Transfer Resistance
26.5. Importance of Shell-Side Cross-Flow
26.5.1. Detecting Tube Leaks On-Stream
References
Chapter 27: Heat Exchanger Innovations
27.1. Smooth High Alloy Tubes
27.2. Low-Finned Tubes
27.3. Sintered Metal Tubes
27.4. Spiral Heat Exchanger
27.5. Tube Inserts
27.5.1. Spirelf Tube Insert
27.5.2. Turbotal Tube Insert
27.5.3. Fixotal Tube Insert
27.5.4. General Comments on Spirelf, Turbotal, and Fixotal Tube Inserts
27.5.5. Air Cooler Retrofit
27.5.6. Concluding Thoughts on Wire Spring Turbulators
27.6. Twisted Tubes and Twisted Tube Bundle
27.6.1. Twisted Tubes Are Used in Crude Preheat Mainly with Crude on the Tube Side
27.6.2. Twisted Tubes with the Crude on the Shell Side
27.6.3. General Problems and Concerns with Twisted Tube Exchangers
27.7. Helical Tube Support Baffles
Reference
Chapter 28: Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers: Design Details
28.1. Selecting the Process Fluid Location
28.1.1. Shell or Tube Side
28.1.2. Vortex Shedding
28.1.3. Adjusting for Cross-Flow Velocity
28.2. Design the Shell Side for Ease of Cleaning
28.2.1. Tube Materials
28.2.2. Tube-Side Velocity Constraints
28.2.3. Terminal Tube Velocity
28.2.4. Exchanger Nozzle Sizing
28.2.5. Impingement Plates and Seal Strips
28.2.6. Back-Flush Connections—Water Coolers
28.2.7. Helical Baffles
28.2.8. Correction Factor for Non-True Countercurrent Flow
28.2.9. Two-Pass Shell Exchangers
28.2.10. Selection of Fouling Factors
28.2.11. Selection of Allowable ∆P
Chapter 29: Fired Heaters: Fire- and Flue-Gas Side: Draft and Afterburn; Optimizing Excess Air
29.1. Effect of Reduced Air Flow
29.2. Absolute Combustion
29.2.1. Oxygen Starvation
29.2.2. Appearance of the Firebox and Flames
29.2.3. Secondary Combustion or Afterburn
29.2.4. Using the Concept of Absolute Combustion in Operations
29.2.5. Flue-Gas Oxygen and Tramp Air
29.3. Draft
29.3.1. Draft Readings
29.3.2. Draft Balancing
29.4. Air Leakage
29.4.1. Evaluating Fuel Wastage Due to Air Leaks
29.4.2. Minimizing Fuel Wastage Due to Air Leaks
29.4.3. Patching Air Leaks
29.5. Efficient Air/Fuel Mixing
29.6. Optimizing Excess Air
29.7. Air Preheating, Lighting Burners, and Heat Balancing
29.7.1. Air Preheaters
29.7.2. Heater Thumping or Vibration
29.7.3. Lighting Burners
29.7.4. Heat Balancing
29.7.5. Lack of Air Affects Draft and Combustion
Reference
Chapter 30: Fired Heaters: Process Side: Coking Furnace Tubes and Tube Failures
30.1. Process Duty versus Heat Liberation
30.1.1. Distribution of Heat of Combustion
30.1.2. Reradiation of Heat from Refractory
30.1.3. Adiabatic Combustion
30.2. Heater Tube Failures
30.2.1. High-Temperature Creep
30.2.2. Purge Steam
30.2.3. Identifying Thin Tubes and Hot Spots
30.3. Flow in Heater Tubes
30.3.1. Loss of Flow
30.3.2. Annular Flow
30.4. Low-NOx Burners
30.5. Tube Fire-Side Heaters
Chapter 31: Refrigeration Systems: An Introduction to Centrifugal Compressors
31.1. Refrigerant Receiver
31.1.1. Inventory Control
31.1.2. Vapor Trap
31.2. Evaporator Temperature Control
31.2.1. Spillback
31.2.2. Discharge Throttling
31.2.3. Suction Throttling
31.3. Compressor and Condenser Operation
31.3.1. Compressor Operation
31.3.2. Condenser Operation
31.4. Refrigerant Composition
31.4.1. Overcoming Speed Limits
31.4.2. Pressure Rating Limits
Chapter 32: Cooling Water Systems
32.1. Locating Exchanger Tube Leaks
32.2. Tube-Side Fouling
32.3. Changing Tube-Side Passes
32.4. Cooling Tower pH Control
32.5. Wooden Cooling Towers
32.6. Back-Flushing and Air Rumbling
32.7. Acid Cleaning
32.8. Increasing Water Flow
32.9. Piping Pressure Losses
32.10. Cooling Tower Efficiency
32.11. Wet Bulb Temperature
Reference
Chapter 33: Catalytic Effects: Equilibrium and Kinetics
33.1. Kinetics vs. Equilibrium
33.2. Temperature vs. Time
33.3. Purpose of a Catalyst
33.4. Lessons from Lithuania
33.4.1. The Celebration Dinner
33.4.2. Catalytic Effect
33.5. Zero Order Reactions
33.6. Runaway Reaction
33.7. Common Chemical Plant and Refinery Catalytic Processes
33.7.1. Naphtha Reforming
33.7.2. Steam-Hydrocarbon Reforming
33.7.3. Alkylation
33.7.4. Polymerization
33.7.5. Sweetening
33.7.6. White Oil Hydrogenation
33.7.7. Fluid Catalytic Cracking
33.7.8. Sulfuric Acid
Chapter 34: Centrifugal Pumps: Fundamentals of Operation: Head, Flow, and Pressure
34.1. Head
34.1.1. Hydraulic Hammer
34.1.2. Momentum
34.1.3. My Washing Machine
34.1.4. Acceleration
34.2. Starting NPSH Requirement
34.3. Pressure
34.3.1. Loss of Suction Pressure
34.3.2. Pump Discharge Pressure
34.3.3. Feet of Head
34.3.4. Effect of Specific Gravity
34.3.5. Pump Curve
34.3.6. Driver Horsepower
34.4. Pump Impeller
34.4.1. Impeller Diameter
34.4.2. Impeller Rotation
34.5. Effect of Temperature on Pump Capacity
Chapter 35: Centrifugal Pumps: Driver Limits: Electric Motors and Steam Turbines
35.1. Electric Motors
35.1.1. Helper Turbine
35.1.2. Selecting Motor Size
35.1.3. Motor Trip Point
35.1.4. Internal Motor Thermal Protection
35.1.5. Motor Bearings
35.2. Steam Turbines
35.2.1. Turbine Drives
35.2.2. Increasing the Size of Steam Nozzles
35.3. Gears
Reference
Chapter 36: Centrifugal Pumps: Suction Pressure Limits: Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head
36.1. Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head
36.1.1. Causes of Cavitation
36.1.2. Cavitation Illustrated
36.1.3. Starting NPSH Requirement
36.1.4. A Hunting Story
36.1.5. Temporary Increase in NPSH
36.1.6. Why Some Pumps Cavitate
36.1.7. Vortex Breaker
36.1.8. Marginal Cavitation
36.2. Sub-atmospheric Suction Pressure
36.2.1. Pump Suction under Vacuum
36.2.2. Sump Pumps
36.2.3. Loss of Prime
36.2.4. Self-Flushed Pumps
Chapter 37: Centrifugal Pumps: Reducing Seal and Bearing Failures
37.1. A Packed Pump
37.2. Mechanical Seal
37.3. Purpose of Seal Flush
37.3.1. Externally Flushed Pumps
37.4. Seal Leaks
37.5. Wasting External Seal Flush Oil
37.6. Double Mechanical Seal
37.7. Dry Seals
37.8. Application of Nitrogen Barrier Seals Using Double Mechanical Seals
37.8.1. Problems with Nitrogen Barrier Dry Seals
37.9. Steam Use in Seal Chamber
37.10. Pressure Balancing Holes
37.11. Bearing Failures
37.11.1. Oiler Glass Level Discrepancies
37.11.2. Oil Mist System—Bearing Housing
37.11.3. Water Accumulation in the Bearing Housing of Turbine-Driven Pumps
37.11.4. Cloudy Lube Oil
37.12. Starting a Centrifugal Pump
37.12.1. Preparation before Starting a Pump
37.12.2. Start-Up
37.12.3. Additional Valving for Start-Up
References
Chapter 38: Control Valves
38.1. Pumps and Control Valves
38.2. Operating on the Bad Part of the Curve
38.3. Control Valve Position
38.4. Valve Position Dials
38.5. Air-to-Open Valves
38.6. Saving Energy in Existing Hydraulic Systems
38.7. Control Valve Bypasses
38.8. Plugged Control Valves
Chapter 39: Separators: Vapor-Hydrocarbon-Water: Liquid Settling Rates
39.1. Gravity Settling
39.2. Demisters
39.2.1. Demister Failure
39.3. Entrainment Due to Foam
39.4. Water-Hydrocarbon Separations
39.4.1. Water Settling and Viscosity
39.4.2. Interface-Level Control
39.5. Electrically Accelerated Water Coalescing
39.5.1. Electrostatic Precipitation
39.5.2. Electric Precipitators in Mist Removal
39.6. Static Coalescers
Chapter 40: Gas Compression: The Basic Idea: The Second Law of Thermodynamics Made Easy
40.1. Relationship between Heat and Work
40.2. Compression Work (Cp - Cv)
Reference
Chapter 41: Centrifugal Compressors and Surge: Overamping the Motor Driver
41.1. Centrifugal Compression and Surge
41.1.1. Mechanically, What Is Surge?
41.1.2. How Do Centrifugal Compressors Work?
41.1.3. Aerodynamic Stall
41.1.4. Required ∆P
41.1.5. Too Much Polytropic Head
41.1.6. Effect of Molecular Weight on ∆P
41.2. Compressor Efficiency
41.2.1. Maintaining a Constant Suction Drum Pressure
41.2.2. Variable-Speed Driver
41.2.3. What about Jane?
41.2.4. Damming the River Yeo
41.2.5. Saving Electricity
41.2.6. Suction Temperature
41.2.7. Sulfur Plant Air Blower
41.2.8. Centrifugal Compressor Check Valves and Surge Protection
41.3. Frequently Asked Questions about Centrifugal Compressors
Chapter 42: Reciprocating Compressors: The Carnot Cycle; Use of Indicator Card
42.1. Theory of Reciprocating Compressor Operation
42.1.1. Compression
42.1.2. Discharge
42.1.3. Expansion
42.1.4. Intake
42.2. The Carnot Cycle
42.3. The Indicator Card
42.3.1. Pulsation Losses
42.3.2. Using the Indicator Card
42.4. Volumetric Compressor Efficiency
42.5. Unloaders
42.5.1. Valve Disablers
42.5.2. Valve Failure
42.6. Rod Loading
42.7. Variable Molecular Weight
42.7.1. Effect of Gas Density on Flow Indication
Chapter 43: Compressor Efficiency: Effect on Driver Load
43.1. Jet Engine
43.2. Controlling Vibration and Temperature Rise
43.2.1. Vibration
43.2.2. Temperature Rise
43.3. Relative Efficiency
43.3.1. Axial Air Compressor Example
43.3.2. Parallel Compressors
43.4. Relative Work: External Pressure Losses
Chapter 44: Safety Concerns: Relief Valves, Corrosion, and Safety Trips
44.1. Relief-Valve Plugging
44.2. Relieving to Atmosphere
44.3. Corrosion Monitoring
44.3.1. Corrosion Coupons
44.3.2. Corrosion Probes
44.4. Alarms and Trips
44.4.1. Safety Trips
44.4.2. Compressor Trips
44.5. Auto-ignition of Hydrocarbons
44.5.1. A Hazardous Piping Configuration
44.6. Paper Gaskets
44.7. Calculating Heats of Reaction
44.8. Hot Water Explodes Out of Manway
Chapter 45: Relief Valve System Design
45.1. Coke Drums
45.2. High-Pressure Fixed-Bed Reactors
45.3. Trayed Towers and Packed Columns
45.4. Liquid-Filled Vessels
45.5. Sour Water Strippers
45.5.1. Relief Valve Effluent Disposition
45.6. Protecting Relief Valves from Fouling and Corrosion
45.7. Dual Relief Valves
45.8. Process Design Responsibility for Relief Valve Design
45.9. Relief Valve and Pressure Sensing Connections
45.10. Heat Exchanger Safety Reliefs
45.11. Relief Valve Effluents
45.12. Maintaining Flare Header Positive Pressures
45.12.1. Flare Water Seal
45.12.2. Flare Header Purge Gas
45.13. Leaking Relief Valves
45.14. Tray Failure Due to Relief Valves
45.15. The Piper Alpha Rig Destruction
Chapter 46: Corrosion—Process Units
46.1. Closer to Home
46.2. Erosive Velocities
46.3. Mixed Phase Flow
46.4. Carbonate Corrosion
46.5. Naphthenic Acid Attack
46.6. A Short History of Corrosion
46.6.1. Weak Sulfuric Acid Corrosion
46.6.2. Hydrogen-Assisted Stress Corrosion Cracking
46.6.3. Erosion-Corrosion Failure
46.6.4. Summary
46.7. Corrosion—Fired Heaters
46.7.1. Stack Integrity
46.7.2. Air Leaks
46.7.3. Air Preheaters
46.7.4. Plugged Air Preheaters
46.7.5. Reducing Air Preheater Failures
46.8. Oil-Fired Heaters
46.9. Finned-Tube Corrosion
46.10. Field Identification of Piping Metallurgy
Chapter 47: Waste Water Strippers
47.1. Purpose of Sour Water Strippers
47.1.1. The Bad Design
47.1.2. The Wrong Design
47.1.3. The Best Design
47.2. Two-Stage Sour Water Stripper
47.3. Tray Efficiency
47.4. Computer Simulation and Theoretical Tray Efficiency
47.5. Use of Caustic to Improve Stripping
47.6. Water Stripper Reboiler Corrosion and Fouling
47.7. Ballast Water Stripper
47.8. Conclusions
Reference
Chapter 48: Fluid Flow in Pipes: Basic Ideas to Evaluate Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Flow
48.1. Field Engineer’s Method for Estimating Pipe Flow
48.1.1. Low-Viscosity Liquids and Vapors in Turbulent Flow
48.2. Field Pressure Drop Survey
48.3. Line Sizing for Low-Viscosity and Turbulent Flow
48.3.1. Not All Fluids Are Created Equal
48.3.2. Flow Regimes in Newtonian Fluids
48.3.3. The Importance of the Reynolds Number
48.3.4. Shear Rate, Shear Stress, and Viscosity in Newtonian Fluids
48.3.5. Kinematic Viscosity
48.4. Frictional Pressure Loss in Rough and Smooth Pipe
48.4.1. Values of Roughness
48.5. Special Case for Laminar Flow
48.6. Smooth Pipes and Turbulent Flow
48.7. Very Rough Pipes and Very Turbulent Flow
48.8. Non-Newtonian Fluids
48.9. Some Types of Flow Behavior
48.9.1. Time-Independent Flow
48.9.2. Time-Dependent Flow
48.10. Viscoelastic Fluids
48.11. Identifying the Type of Flow Behavior
48.12. Apparent and Effective Viscosity of Non-Newtonian Liquids
48.13. The Power Law or Ostwald de Waele Model
48.13.1. Evaluating k and n
48.14. Generalized Reynolds Numbers
48.14.1. The Metzner-Reed Reynolds Number, ReMR
48.14.2. Friction Factor and ReMR
References
Chapter 49: Super-Fractionation Separation Stage
49.1. My First Encounter with Super-Fractionation
49.1.1. The Chickens Come Home to Roost
49.2. Kettle Reboiler
49.3. Partial Condenser
49.3.1. Another Defect
49.4. Side Reboilers and Intercoolers
Chapter 50: Hand Calculations for Distillation Towers: Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium, Absorption, and Stripping Calculations
50.1. Introduction
50.2. Bubble Point and Dew Point Calculations
50.2.1. Bubble Point
50.2.2. Dew Point
50.3. The Absorption Factor or Stripping Factor Chart
50.3.1. Absorption or Stripping Factor Chart for Absorption
50.3.2. Stripping Factor or Absorption Factor Chart for Stripping
50.4. Conclusion
References
Chapter 51: Computer Modeling and Control
51.1. Modeling a Propane-Propylene Splitter
51.1.1. Predicting Tray Efficiency vs. Relative Volatility
51.1.2. The Input Data Problem
51.1.3. Establishing a Firm Design Basis
51.1.4. A Monument Rises
51.2. Computer Control
51.3. Material Balance Problems in Computer Modeling
51.3.1. How Steve Could Have Avoided becoming Employee Relations Manager
51.3.2. Missing Heavier Components from a Vapor Sample
51.3.3. The Garbage Rule
51.4. Fourth Edition Update Comments
Chapter 52: Field Troubleshooting Process Problems
52.1. De-ethanizer Flooding
52.1.1. What’s Next?
52.2. The Elements of Troubleshooting
52.3. Field Calculations
52.4. Troubleshooting Tools—Your Wrench
52.5. Field Measurements
52.5.1. Indirect Flow Measurement
52.5.2. Using the Infrared Surface Temperature Gun
52.5.3. Pressure Measurement Problem
52.6. Troubleshooting Methods
52.7. Afterword
Glossary
Index
The Norm Lieberman Video Library of Troubleshooting Process Operations
